Fig. 6
From: Increased cysteinyl-tRNA synthetase drives neuroinflammation in Alzheimer’s disease
Proposed mechanisms underlying the CARS-induced chronic neuroinflammation in AD. Continuous accumulation of Aβ or other stresses such as oxidative stress can induce chronic neuroinflammation. The increased levels of pro-inflammatory cytokines such as TNF-α stimulate the release of CARS from neurons. Local elevation of CARS can induce additional microglial activation and the release of inflammatory cytokines, which further exacerbate the neuroinflammation cycle, aggravating cognitive impairment