Table 1 The pathophysiological roles of PGE2 and its related enzymes and receptors in ALS and other neurodegenerative diseases
| Â | Enzymes | Receptors | ||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
PGE2 | COX | PGES | 15-PGDH | EP1 | EP2 | EP3 | EP4 | |
ALS | Increase | Upregulation Model mice: COX-2 in spinal cord [45]; Patients: COX-2 in spinal cord [6] Treatment Model mice: Nimesulide—Delay in the onset of movement disorders and tendency to prolong survival [45] Celecoxib —Delay in the onset of movement disorders and prolong survival [26, 46] Rofecoxib —Delay in the onset of movement disorders and prolong survival [26] Patients: Celecoxib —No effect [94] | Upregulation Model mice: mPGES-1 in motor neurons and microglia [47] | Upregulation Model mice: astrocytes [27] | Unknown | Upregulation Model mice: Astrocytes [65], microglia [65] and motor neurons [66] Treatment Model mice: Knockout—Prolong survival [65], and suppression of oxidative injury [65]; Model cells: Butaprost (agonist)—Caspase-3-dependent apoptosis via ROS production [76] | No change Model mice: Motor neurons [81] | Unknown |
AD | Increase Patients: CSF [104] | Upregulation Patients: COX-1 in microglia, and COX-2 in neurons [73] Treatment Model mice: Naproxen—Improvement of memory function[111] Patients: Indomethacin—Improvement of cognitive impairment [110] | Upregulation Patients: mPGES-1 in neurons, microglia, astrocytes, and endothelial cells [108]; mPGES-2 in pyramidal neurons [109] | Unknown | Unknown | Treatment Model mice: Knockout − Suppression of oxidative injury [77, 114]; Model cells: AE-259 (agonist) − Enhanced Aβ production [113] | Unknown | Treatment Model cells: AE-329 (agonist)—Enhanced Ap production [113] |
HD | Unknown | Unknown | Unknown | Unknown | Treatment Model mice: SC-51089 (antagonist)—Improvement of memory and motor deficits [119] | Treatment Model mice: Misoprostol (agonist)—Improvement of longterm memory deficits [118] | Unknown | Unknown |
PD | Increase Patients: substantia nigra [105] | Upregulation Patients: substantia nigra [50] Treatment Model mice: DuP697−Inhibition of dopaminergic neurotoxicity [121] Valdecoxib−Improvement of motor deficits [122] Patients: NSAIDs other than ibuprofen−No effect [123] Ibuprofen−Lower risk of development than non-use [124] | Upregulation Patients: mPGES-1 in substantia nigra [120] Treatment Model mice: Knockout−Suppression of the 6-OHDA-induced neurodegeneration [50] | Unknown | Unknown | Treatment Model cells: Butaprost (agonist) − Protection against oxidative stress [79]; Knockout − Enhanced microglia-mediated α-synuclein clearance [125] | Unknown | Unknown |
MS | Increase Model mice: cerebral cortex, cerebellum, and spinal cord [127] | Upregulation Model mice: COX-1 and COX-2 in cerebral cortex, cerebellum, and spinal cord [92] Treatment Model mice: Indomethacin − Delay in the progression [126] | Upregulation Model mice: mPGES-1 in macrophages in spinal cord [128] Patients: mPGES-1 in macrophages in the brain [128] Treatment Model mice: Knockout − Improvement of clinical score [129] | Unknown | Unknown | Function Model mice: Enhanced generation of T helper 1 and helper 17 cells [130] | Unknown | Function Model mice: Enhanced generation of T helper 1 and helper 17 cells, and prevention  of BBB invasion  by these cells [130] |