Table 1 Effects of physical exercise on brain metabolism in animal models
From: Brain metabolism in Alzheimer’s disease: biological mechanisms of exercise
Model/sex/age | Groups | Exercise protocol | Main effects of glucose/lipid/Aβ/iron/tau metabolism in the brain | Reference |
|---|---|---|---|---|
Wistar rats/Male/ 8 weeks | Control groups: intact control group, Aβ injected group, sham injected group Intervention groups: exercise group, Aβ + exercise group | 4-week chronic treadmill running/5 days a week/exercise intensity not indicated | NEP, IDE and LRP-1 protein levels were elevated; Aβ levels were reduced | [19] |
APP-C105 mice/male/24 months | Control groups: NTg-C group, Tg-C group Intervention groups: NTg-TE group, Tg-TE group | 8-week chronic treadmill exercise/5 days a week/70%–85% VO2max | Decreased expression of Tf, TfR1, DMT1, ferritin and BACE1; increased expression of Fpn1, Furin and ADAM10; reduced iron overload | [20] |
Sprague-Dawley rats/male/10 weeks | Control group: sedentary control group Intervention group: acute exercise group | 2-h single acute treadmill exercise/50%–70% VO2max/moderate intensity | Increased levels of lactate, β-hydroxybutyrate, MCT1, MCT2, MCT4 and GLUT1 proteins | [40] |
APPswe/PS1∆E9 mice/male/6 months | Control groups: WT-NT, AD-NT Intervention groups: WT-T, AD-T | 4-week regular swim training/1 h each day, 6 days a week/exercise intensity not indicated | Increased expression of GLUT1 and GLUT3; reduced expression of Aβ and hyperphosphorylated tau proteins; improved glucose metabolism | [41] |
APPswe/PS1∆E9 mice/male/10 months | Control groups: WT_Sed, AD_Sed Intervention groups: WT_Run, AD_Run | 3-month chronic voluntary wheel running | Increased glucose uptake; increased GLUT5 expression | [42] |
Sprague–Dawley rats/male/10–12 weeks | Control group: no exercise Intervention groups: forced treadmill exercise group and voluntary running-wheel exercise group | 3-week chronic treadmill exercise/30 min each day, 5 days a week/exercise intensity not indicated; 3-week chronic voluntary wheel running | Enhanced glycolysis; increased levels of GLUT1, GLUT3, phosphofructokinase and lactate dehydrogenase proteins | [56] |
Aβ oligomer-induced mice/male/8 weeks | Control groups: saline plus non-intervention group, Aβ oligomer plus non-intervention group Intervention group: Aβ oligomer plus involuntary and voluntary running group | 4-week regular involuntary treadmill running/50 min each day, 6 days a week/exercise intensity not indicated; 4-week chronic voluntary wheel running | Increased glutamate metabolism, glucose metabolism and tricarboxylic acid cycle | [60] |
APPswe/PS1∆E9 mice/male/5 months | Control groups: SED-Con, SED-APP/PS1 Intervention groups: EXE-Con, EXE-APP/PS1 | 5-month chronic treadmill exercise/30 min each day, 6 days a week/exercise intensity not indicated | APP, BACE1 and RAGE protein levels were decreased; ADAM10 protein level was increased; Aβ was reduced | [75] |
Tg2576 mice/male/ 3 months | Control group: sedentary control group Intervention group: low and high intensity exercise training group | 12-week chronic treadmill running/1 h each day, 5 days a week/low and high intensity | Increased levels of NEP, IDE, MMP9, LRP1 and HSP70; increased Aβ degradation and efflux | [93] |
Wistar rats/male/ 8 weeks | Control groups: Aβ injection group, sham injection group Intervention groups: Aβ injection + exercise group, sham injection + exercise group | 4-week chronic treadmill exercise/5 days a week/mild to moderate intensity | Increased ABCA1 mRNA expression; improved brain lipid metabolism | [105] |
APPswe/PS1∆E9 mice/male/3 months | Control group: transgenic control group Intervention groups: transgenic 45%–55% and 60%–70% maximal oxygen uptake exercise groups | 5-month chronic treadmill training/30 min each day, 5 days a week/medium and low intensity | RXR and total cholesterol decreased; LXR, LRP1/LDLR, APOE and ABCA1 levels were upregulated; lipid metabolism increased | [106] |
APPswe/PS1∆E9 mice/male/3 months | Control groups: WT-NT, AD-NT Intervention groups: WT-T, AD-T | 12-week regular treadmill exercise training/45 min each day, 5 days a week/moderate intensity | Decreased cholesterol, BACE1 and flotillin1 levels; decreased number of lipid rafts; increased ADAM10 level | [116] |
APPswe/PS1∆E9 mice/male/7 months | Control groups: SED-Con, SED-APP/PS1 Intervention groups: EXE-Con, EXE-APP/PS1 | 4-week chronic involuntary treadmill running combined with swimming/40 min each day, 6 days a week/mild to moderate intensity | Improved lipid metabolism and amino acid metabolism | [118] |
5xFAD transgenic mice/male/6 weeks | Control group: sedentary group Intervention group: voluntarily exercise group | 6-month chronic voluntary wheel running | Decreased TfR, DMT1, ferritin, IL-6, STAT3, JAK1 and hepcidin levels; reduced iron overload | [131] |