Fig. 5

Longitudinal associations between CSF P-tau, VILIP-1, and YKL-40 with other AD hallmarks. a–d The data are estimates (β-coefficients) from linear mixed-effects models with a confidence interval of 95%. The estimates are the effect of time plus the biomarker by time interactions, capturing the longitudinal effects of the biomarkers. For each model, the “average” effect of time is also displayed for comparison. Effects were significant (*), which means that biomarker levels affected the slopes of the outcome, for MMSE (a): VILIP-1 (p = 0.033) in Aβ⁺; for hippocampal volume (b): VILIP-1 in Aβ⁻ (p = 0.041) and Aβ⁺ (p < 0.001) and for YKL-40 (p = 0.034) in Aβ⁺; for ventricular volume (c): VILIP-1 in Aβ⁻ (p < 0.001) and Aβ⁺ (p < 0.001). Biomarkers and outcomes were standardized to z-scores. Abbreviations: VILIP-1, Visinin-like protein-1; YKL-40, Chitinase-3-like protein 1; AD, Alzheimer’s disease