Table 1 Summary of pathological functions of EVs in NDs

Neuron

AD

P-T181-tau, Aβ₁₋₄₂, cathepsin D

–

Promoting Aβ deposition and NFT formation

[84]

AD

APP mRNA & protein

–

Facilitating the production of Aβ

[10]

AD

miR-124, miR-155, miR-146a, miR-21, miR-125b

–

Inducing microglial activation and pro-inflammatory cytokine release

[87]

AD

–

miR-185

Elevating APP expression levels

[10]

PD

α-syn

–

Inducing neurotoxicity and α-syn-rich Lewy bodies formation

[272]

PD

Rab8b, Rab31

–

Contributing to non-motor symptoms in PD pathology including hearing loss

[123]

PD

20 S Proteasome complex, PARK7, Gelsolin, Amyloid P component, Clusterin

–

Participating in PD onset and progression

[124]

PD

miR-19a-3p, miR-155

–

Mediating α-syn-induced inflammatory responses

[121]

ALS

mutant SOD1

–

Inducing mitochondrial toxicity

[138]

ALS

DPRs, TDP-43

–

Inducing astrocyte toxicity and neurodegeneration

[139]

ALS

miR-4736, miR-4700-5p, miR-1207-5p, miR-4739, miR-4505, miR-24-3p, miR-149-3p, etc.

miR-1268a, miR-2861, miR-4508, miR-4507, miR-3176, miR-3911, miR-150-3p, etc.

Disturbing neuroplasticity and enhancing neural damage

[141]

HD

mutant HTT

–

Inducing neurodegeneration

[156]

Astrocyte

AD

p-Tau

–

Enhancing the formation of NFT

[95]

AD

BACE1, complement proteins

–

Promoting Aβ cleavage and neuronal damage

[99, 100]

PD

–

miR-200a-3p

Inhibiting c-Jun N-terminal kinase cell death pathway

[129]

ALS

mutant SOD1

–

Inducing selective motor neuron death

[146]

ALS

–

miR-494-3p

Unlocking SEMA3A-induced motor neuron degeneration

[147]

ALS

IL-6

–

Exacerbating pro-inflammatory responses of neuroglial cells

[148]

HD

–

CRYAB

Suppressing EV secretion

[273]

Microglia

AD

Human tau

–

Spreading of tau protein

[80]

AD

TREM2

–

Changing environment around Aβ and promoting microglia to phagocytose Aβ

[114]

AD

APP/Aβ, P2RY12, TMEM119, FTH1, TREM2

–

Stimulating microglial activation and contributing to Aβ deposition

[111, 112]

AD

Cholesterol, BMP, MhCer lipid species

DHA-containing polyunsaturated lipids

Inducing defect in acyl-chain remodeling

[112]

AD

miR-28-5p, miR-381-3p, miR-651-5p, miR-188-5p

–

Enhancing neuroinflammation and cellular senescence

[112]

PD

α-syn

–

Spreading α-syn oligomers through microglia-neuron α-syn transmission

[130]

PD

MHC class II molecules, TNF-α

–

Triggering neuroinflammation and dopaminergic neurodegeneration

[131, 132]

ALS

mutant SOD1

–

Inducing neurotoxicity and motor neuron death

[150]

ALS

HMGB1, miR-155, miR-146a

–

Activating microglia and impairing mitophagy

[151]

Oligodendrocyte

PD

α-syn

–

Inducing neurotoxicity and formation of α-syn-rich Lewy bodies

[136]