Fig. 1
From: Advances in the development of new biomarkers for Alzheimer’s disease
Classification of AD biomarkers. AD pathogenic proteins include the markers of the "amyloid theory", amyloid-beta (Aβ)40 and Aβ42, as well as markers of AD-related metabolic disorders, P-Tau (phosphorylated) and T-Tau (total). Biomarkers obtained by lumbar puncture are cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) biomarkers, CSF Aβ1-42, CSF P-Tau, CSF T-Tau, and Neurogranin. Neurodegeneration markers include neurogranin and neurofilament light (NFL). The markers of inflammation include IL-1β and two soluble receptors sIL-1R1 and sIL-1R3, IL-8, SDF-1, intercellular adhesion molecule 1 (ICAM1), vascular cell adhesion protein 1 (VCAM-1), progranulin, IL-33, and soluble interleukin 1 receptor-like (sST2). Many miRNAs are either up-regulated or down-regulated in studies on AD. The retina of the eye, as well as blood and plasma are being analyzed by a range of tools including single-molecular mass analysis (SIMOA), immunoprecipitation-mass spectrometry (IP-MS), immunomagnetic recovery (IMR), enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA), and electrochemiluminescence immunoassays (ECL). Quantitative reverse transcription polymerase chain reaction (RT-qPCR) is used to identify miRNAs. The study of retinal degenerative changes, including ganglion cells and internal plexiform layers (GCIPL) and retinal nerve fiber layer (RNFL; p indicates peripapillary), is performed by optical coherence tomography (OCT) and spectral domain optical coherence tomography (SD-OCT)