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Table 2 Summary of the selected whole-body vibration studies

From: Multi-mechanical waves against Alzheimer’s disease pathology: a systematic review

Publication

Stimulation frequency

Amplitude

Duration and periodicity

Subjects under study

Primary outcomes of whole-body vibration (WBV) training

Kawanabe et al. [75]

12–20 Hz (rotational vibration)

4 min/day, once a week over 2 months

Healthy non-demented older adults

(age: 71.8 ± 0.9)

Behavioral readouts

 Improved walking ability overtime after WBV + routine exercise (10-m walking time and step length)

 Improved balance overtime after WBV + routine exercise (maximum standing time on one leg)

 No significant changes after routine exercise alone

 Safety and feasibility

 Well-tolerated by the elderly

 No serious adverse effects

Cheung et al. [74]

20 Hz (rotational vibration)

0.5-3 mm

3 min/day, 3 days/week over 3 months

Healthy non-demented older adults

(age: 72.4 ± 4.9)

Behavioral readouts

 Enhancement of some parameters of balance - e.g. movement velocity, maximum excursion and directional control (limits of stability assessment), and tendency for improvement in others - reaction time, endpoint excursion, and maximal distance reached while maintaining a fixed base of support (limits of stability assessment and functional reach test)

Safety and feasibility

 Compliance of 93%

 Low level of dropouts (10%)

Furness and Maschette [73]

15 & 25 Hz (increasing over time) (vertical vibration)

0.05 mm

5 min (5 bouts of 1 min), over 6 weeks:

once a week

twice a week

thrice a week

(1–2 min interval between bouts)

Healthy non-demented older adults

(age: 72 ± 8)

Behavioral readouts

 Enhanced functional mobility after 2 and 3 WBV sessions/week (5-chair stands test and TUG tests)

 Improvement of balance and gait after 2 and 3 WBV sessions/week (Tinetti test)

 Increase in all health-related quality of life component scores after 2 and 3 WBV sessions/week (SF-36 score)

Safety and feasibility

 Compliance of 100%

 Well-tolerated by the elderly

 No serious adverse effects

Cardinale et al. [100]

30 Hz (vertical vibration)

4 mm (peak-to-peak)

5 series of 1 min (1 min of rest between series)

Healthy non-demented older adults

(age: 66–85)

 Cellular and molecular readouts

 Increased IGF-1 levels at the end of the treatment and at the 2-h follow-up (ELISA)

 Increased cortisol levels at the end of the treatment, with an abrupt decline at the 2-h follow-up (ELISA)

 No significant difference in growth hormone and testosterone levels compared to controls (ELISA)

 No changes in pulse rate and normal and spun haemoglobin (cyanmethaemoglobin method)

Safety and feasibility

 Acceptability of 9 out of 10 (Likert scale)

Machado et al. [77]

20–40 Hz (increasing over time) (vertical vibration)

2-4 mm

7–22 min/session, 3–5 sessions/week over 10 weeks (increasing training volume over time)

Healthy non-demented older adults

(age: 79.3 ± 7.3)

Behavioral readouts

 Improvement of functional mobility (TUG test), associated with increased muscle strength, size, and activity in the lower limbs (maximal voluntary isometric contraction test, muscle cross-sectional area assessment, and surface electromyographic activity) compared to the control group and baseline condition

Safety and feasibility

 Attendance of 95%

 No serious adverse effects

Marín et al. [79]

35 & 40 Hz (increasing over time) (vertical vibration)

1.05–2.11 mm (peak-to-peak)

- 2 sessions/week over 8 weeks

- 4 sessions/week over 8 weeks

Healthy non-demented older adults

(age: 84.3 ± 7.4)

Behavioral readouts

 No alterations in balance (Romberg test) and health-related quality of life (SF-36 score)

 Increased neuromuscular function at the end of 2-sessions/week and 4-sessions/week regimens, and at the 3-weeks follow-up after the 4-sessions/week regimen (30-s chair stand test)

Safety and feasibility

 No serious adverse effects

Beaudart et al. [102]

35 Hz (vertical vibration)

2 mm

5 series of 15 s (30 s of rest between series)

Healthy non-demented older adults

(age: 82.2 ± 9.02)

Behavioral readouts

 Tendency for improvement in balance and gait over time (Tinetti test)

 Tendency for improvement in functional mobility over time when data were adjusted according to subjects’ features (TUG test)

 No effect on the number of falls compared to the control group

Safety and feasibility

 Attendance rate of 96.7%, with 91.9% compliance

Zhang et al.

[76]

6–26 Hz (rotational vibration)

1-3 mm

4–5 min (4–5 bouts of 60 s), 3–5 times/ week over 8 weeks

Frail older adults without severe cognitive impairment

(age: 85.3 ± 3.6)

Behavioral readouts

 Enhanced balance, functional mobility, and physical functioning at week 4 (TUG test, knee extensor strength, surface area elipse, and SF-12 score) and at week 8 (TUG test, knee extensor strength, surface area elipse, and SF-12 score)

Safety and feasibility

 High compliance

 Low level of dropouts (14%)

 No serious adverse effects

Sievänen et al. [81]

12 Hz, 18 Hz, and 26 Hz (rotational vibration)

2-8 mm (peak-to-peak)

1–5 min/session twice a week over 10 weeks (increasing training volume over weeks)

Frail older adults without severe cognitive nor functional impairment

(age: 84.0 ± 7.4)

Behavioral readouts

 No significant difference in physical performance, although some participants showed functional improvement (short physical performance battery scores, walking speed metrics, TUG and grip strength tests)

Safety and feasibility

 Compliance and attendance of 74% (treated group)

 12-Hz sessions were well tolerated by the elderly, but not the 18-/26-Hz ones

 No serious adverse effects

Álvarez-Barbosa et al. [78]

30–35 Hz

(increasing over time) (vertical vibration)

4 mm (peak-to-peak)

12–17 min/session, 3 sessions/week over 8 weeks

Healthy non-demented older adults

(age: 80–95)

Behavioral readouts

 Enhanced functional mobility at the 4-, 6- and 8-weeks follow-up within the treatment (TUG test)

 Improved lower limb performance at the 2-, 4-, 6- and 8-weeks follow-up (30-s chair-sit-to-stand test)

 No changes in postural ability (Kistler force platform)

 Enhanced daily functioning and health-related quality of life (Barthel Index of activities of daily living and EuroQol-5D)

Safety and feasibility

 Compliance of 73% (treated group)

 Well-tolerated by the elderly

 No serious adverse effects

Lam et al. [21]

30 Hz (vertical vibration)

2 mm (peak-to-peak)

- 4 min (8 bouts of 30 s), 2 days/week over 3 weeks (weeks 1–3)

- 6 min (8 bouts of 45 s), 2 days/week over 5 weeks (weeks 4–9)

- (1–2 min interval between bouts)

Demented patients

(mild or moderate dementia)

(age: 79.8 ± 6.1)

Behavioral readouts

 Improved functional mobility at 3-month follow-up, but not at the end of the treatment (TUG test)

 Enhanced balance at the end of the treatment and at the 3-month follow-up (Berg Balance Scale, and Tinetti balance assessment)

 Quality of life improvement at the end, but not at the 3-month follow-up (Quality of Life in Alzheimer’s disease score)

 Lower functional status at baseline was associated with greater improvement in physical function (TUG , 5-time-sit-to-stand, Berg Balance Scale, Tinetti balance tests)

Safety and feasibility

 86% compliance (intention-to-treat analysis)

 Two out of 27 participants reported mild knee pain and no other side effects were reported

Kim and Lee [67]

20–40 Hz (increasing over time) (vertical vibration)

-

5 times/week over 8 weeks

Senile-demented women

(mild dementia)

(age: 79.2 ± 4.0)

 Brain function and behavioral readouts

 Increased brain network activation over time (electroencephalographic signal)

 Enhanced cognitive function (Mini mental state examination)

Zhu et al. [72]

12–16 Hz (rotational vibration)

3-5 mm (peak-to-peak)

20 min/day for 5 days over 8 weeks

Sarcopenic non-demented older adults

(age: 89.5 ± 4.4)

Behavioral readouts

 No differences in muscle mass (dual-energy X-ray absorptiometry)

 Increased handgrip and lower-limbs strength over time (handheld JAMAR and FET3 dynamometers)

 Improved overall physical performance over time (6-m gait speed test, TUG, 5-times-sit-to-stand, and balance tests)

Heesterbeek et al. [84]

30 Hz

1-2 mm

4 min, 4 days/week over 6 consecutive weeks

Demented patients

(any form of dementia)

(age: 85.3 ± 6.8)

Safety and feasibility

 83% attendance, 100% compliance, and an experience score of 6.9/10 (intention-to-treat analysis)

 90% attendance, 100% compliance, and an experience score of 7.4/10 (per protocol analysis)

 No serious adverse effects

 Low level of dropouts (17%)

 Treatment classified as pleasant by the participants

  1. WBV: whole-body vibration; TUG: time up and go; SF-n: short form health survey (n represents the number of questions in the questionnaire); IGF-1: insulin-like growth factor 1; ELISA: enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay